February 5, 1850 - Du Bois Parmelee, of New Paltz, NY, received a patent for a "Calculator" ("Calculating-Machine"); first adding machine with keys; proved impractical and was not successful.

November 4, 1879 - James Ritty and John Ritty, of Dayton, OH, received a patent  for a "Cash Register and Indicator" ("for use by store-keepers and others as a means of accurately ascertaining, and at a glance, the total receipts taken in by the employees for any given period of time"); nicknamed "Ritty's Incorruptible Cashier", first working version of a mechanical cash register; January 30, 1883 - James Ritty and John Birch, of Dayton, OH, received a patent for a "Cash Register and Indicator"; assigned to Jacob H. Eckert (Cincinnati, OH); 1883 - cash register business (including patents) acquired for $1,000 by Eckert, china and glassware salesman, formed National Manufacturing Company; 1884 - acquired by John H. Patterson, renamed National Cash Register Company; August 27, 1907 - registered "National Cash register" trademark first used December 1866 (cash-registers, credit registers [and autographic registers]); 1974 - name changed to NCR Corporation to symbolize more diverse product line; 1906 - manufactured first electric cash register; 1914 -  producing 110,000 cash registers per year; 1991 - acquired by AT&T.

March 31, 1885 - Julius E. Pitrat, of Gallipolis, OH, received a Patent for a "Weighing and Price Scale" ("scale in which the total price of merchandise in quantity may be quickly and accurately determined , the price per pound being given"); 1891 - acquired by Edward Canby and Orange O. Ozias, businessmen in Dayton, OH; incorporated Computing Scale Co. (later IBM).

July 19, 1887 - Dorr Eugene Felt, of Chicago, IL, received a patent for an "Adding Machine"; October 11, 1887 - received second patent for an "Adding Machine"; commercial wooden-box Comptometer; first practical key-driven calculator with sufficient speed, reliability and economic benefit; 1904 - first steel case Model A, standard for remainder for all "shoebox" models; 1920s - electric motor drive introduced.

November 20, 1888 - Willard L. Bundy, jeweler from Auburn, NY, received a patent for a "Time Recorder" ("to compel employees of factories and shops to record at their place of business the time of their entering the said place, and thus save the extra expense of watchmen or time-keepers usually employed for the aforesaid purpose"); time-recording clock; 1889 - Harlow Bundy (brother) incorporated Bundy Manufacturing Company to produce time recorders; 1896 - George W. Fairchild joined Bundy as investor, director; 1900 - became president of International Time Recording Co., seller of industrial time clocks as agency of Bundy Manufacturing; 1902 - incorporated in NY as International Time Recording Co.; (consolidation of Bundy, Chicago Time-Register Co.  acquired in 1901); February 14, 1924 - company renamed IBM.

January 8, 1889 - Dr. Herman Hollerith, of New York, NY, received two patents for the "Art of Compiling Statistics"; tabulating machine; system designed to record separate statistical items by means of combinations of holes in a punched card to carry information about an individual; first extensive application was for the 1890 census counting data items such as age, sex, occupation, etc.; received a patent for an "Apparatus for Compiling Statistics" ("applicable to the compilation of such statistics as the population-statistics of a census, or the statistics of the registration of births, deaths, and marriages, which are compiles by counting or adding single units as persons").

September 24, 1889 - Alexander Dey, of Glasgow, Scotland, received a patent for a "Workman's Time-Recorder"; employee time clock (dial time recorder); used a dial that employees were required to point to their assigned number, and press to record the time of arrival and departure. The numbers of the employees and times were recorded on a sheet of paper wrapped around a drum; first manufactured by Dey Company; after 1907 - manufactured as Industrial Time Recorders (ITR).

1896 - Herman Hollerith incorporated Tabulating Machine Company, world's first electric tabulating, accounting machine company, especially for use in U.S. census.; later IBM.

March 14, 1899 - Allen De Vilbiss, Jr., of Toledo, OH, received a patent for a "Scale" ("scale of this character [pendulum] whose hand or index swings in irregular steps as weight is added to the pan or platform over a straight-line table whose graduations or marks are equidistant"); May 22, 1900 - received a patent for a "Scale" ("price-scales, which employ and are adapted to compute the total selling price"); assigned to De Vilbiss Computing Scale Company; 1901 - Henry Theobald (former NCR general manager) founded Toledo Computing Scale and Cash Register Company, began production of DeVilbiss Jr.'s computing scale; 1902 - name changed to Toledo Computing Scale Company; 1912 - renamed Toledo Scale Company; 1968 - acquired by Reliance Electric Company.

1910 - Elmer Ambrose Sperry founded Sperry Gyroscope Company to manufacture navigation equipment, especially gyrocompass; 1933 - Sperry Gyroscope Company became Sperry Corporation, holding company for Sperry Gyroscope, Ford Instrument Company, Intercontinental Aviation, Inc., others.

1911 - Charles F. Flint, merchant banker, engineered merger International Time Recording Co., Tabulating Machine Co.; June 15, 1911 - incorporated in New York State as Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company;  May 1, 1914 - Thomas Watson named general manager (previously with NCR); February 14, 1924 - company renamed IBM.

January 1, 1939 - Bill Hewlett and David Packard formalized partnership (with encouragement of Stanford professor, mentor Fred Terman); decided company's name with coin toss; revenue: $5369. Employees: 2; operations in shed behind house in which Packard rented an apartment; $538 working capital consisted of cash, used Sears-Roebuck drill press; first product: 200A audio oscillator, electronic test instrument used by sound engineers (eight bought by Disney to develop,  test an innovative sound system for movie Fantasia); April 9, 1957 - Hewlett-Packard Company registered "Hewlett HP Packard" trademark first used in February 1946 (amplifiers, coaxial probe connectors, power supplies, and waveguide to coaxial adapters).

November 1939 - John V. Atanasoff, assistant professor of mathematics and physics (Iowa State College), graduate student Clifford Berry completed prototype 25-bit adder, 2 25-bit words of memory in the form of capacitors; Summer 1941 - completed special-purpose calculator for solving systems of simultaneous linear equations, later called the "ABC" ("Atanasoff-Berry Computer"); 60 50-bit words of regenerative capacitor memory, mounted on two revolving drums, clock speed of 60 Hz, addition took 1 second, circuits converted between binary, decimal for input and output, included several hundred vacuum tubes altogether, used punch cards, moved around by user, for secondary memory (card system was partial failure - error rate of 0.001% too high to solve large systems of equations); first to implement binary arithmetic, regenerative memory, parallel processing, separation of memory and computing functions; 1942 -1945 - WW II service as Chief, Acoustics Section, U.S. Naval Ordnance Lab., Washington, DC; 1946 - removed from Physics Building at Iowa State, dismantled.

April 14, 1943 - John Grist Brainerd, director of research at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School, submitted a proposal for an electronic computer to colleagues at the U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory; May 1943 - Army contracted the Moore School to build ENIAC, the first electronic computer; not finished until after the war had ended, marked a major step forward in computing.

January 1, 1946 - John W. Mauchly, physics professor, graduate student J. Presper Eckert, at Moore School of Electrical Engineering (University of Pennsylvania), finished ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator),  electronic digital computer; based on ideas developed by John Atanasoff of Iowa State College; regarded as first successful, general digital computer, convinced  world that electronic computing was practicable, masterpiece of electrical engineering, unprecedented in reliability, computing speed; occupied room 30 by 50 feet; built out of 17,468 electronic vacuum tubes, largest single electronic apparatus in world, weighed over 60,000 pounds; staff of six technicians replaced about 2000 tubes each month; first tasks primarily for military purposes (calculating ballistic firing tables, designing atomic weapons); not a stored program machine, had to be reprogrammed for each task; February 13, 1946 - Mauchly and Eckert demonstrated ENIAC, showed that high-speed digital computing was possible using vacuum tube technology then available; laid foundations for modern electronic computing industry; February 14, 1946 - ENIAC unveiled, dedicated at University of Pennsylvania; February 1950 - Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation, patent rights to ENIAC, acquired by Remington Rand Corporation.

March 28, 1946 - The Census Bureau, National Bureau of Standards agreed to buy a UNIVAC computer, world's first general all-purpose business computer, from Presper Eckert and John Mauchly for $225,000 (less than its cost of development); Remington Rand eventually bought company.

January 24, 1948 - IBM dedicated its Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator ("SSEC") in New York City; handled both data and instructions using electronic circuits made with 13,500 vacuum tubes and 21,000 relays; occupied three sides of a 30-ft x 60-ft room: 1) three punches and thirty readers provided paper-tape storage on back wall; 2) banks of vacuum tube circuits for card reading and sequence control and 36 paper tape readers comprising the table-lookup section occupied the left wall; 3) electronic arithmetic unit and storage filled most of right wall; card readers, card punches, printers, and the operator's console were in center of room.

June 21, 1948- First stored-program computer, Small-Scale Experimental Machine, SSEM, ran its first program; 52-minute program written by Professor Tom Kilburn; no keyboard or printer, successfully tested a memory system based on a cathode-ray tube developed at Manchester University in England (previous electronic computers had to be rewired to execute each new problem); proved theories set forth by John von Neumann in a report that proposed 1) modifications to ENIAC, electronic computer built at the University of Pennsylvania in the mid-1940s, 2) use of binary instead of digital numbers.

1949 - Jay Forrester used iron cores as main memory in Whirlwind computer at MIT, first real-time electronic digital computer (replaced expensive, unreliable electrostatic tubes with dependable random access magnetic core memory); conceived the technique of stringing the cores onto a matrix of wires and thus producing a random access memory;  February 28, 1956 - Jay W. Forrester, of Wellesley, MA, received patent for a "Multicoordinate Digital Information Storage Device" ("storage and selection system for digital information...to store electrical information in a multi-dimensional array of coincidence devices, any one of which can be located by a relatively simple system of coordinate wires...a simpler, more compact and more reliable information storage system"); magnetic core memory.

June 14, 1951 - Remington Rand delivered its first computer, UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer), to U.S. Census Bureau; weighed 16,000 pounds, used 5,000 vacuum tubes, could perform about 1,000 calculations per second; world's first commercially produced electronic digital computer; developed by J. Presper Eckert, John Mauchly, makers of ENIAC, first general-purpose electronic digital computer; 1943 - U.S. Army Ordnance Department sponsored Presper Eckert, John Mauchly at University of Pennsylvania to build first general-purpose electronic digital computer to better calculate artillery firing tables; 1946 - ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator), completed at cost of nearly $500,000; took up 15,000 feet, employed 17,000 vacuum tubes, programmed by plugging, replugging some 6,000 switches; December 1945 - first used in calculation for Los Alamos Laboratories; February 1946 - formally dedicated; November 4, 1952 - UNIVAC achieved national fame when it correctly predicted Dwight D. Eisenhower's unexpected landslide victory in presidential election after only tiny percentage of votes were in.

November 17, 1951 - J. Lyons & C., Ltd., chain of British tea shops, introduced world's first computer for business purposes; Lyons Electronic Office (LEO) performed first calculation - ran program to evaluate costs, prices, margins on that week's baked goods; first business machine in world to operate on 'stored program principle' (new programs permitted machine to perform different tasks); computer code, based on flow chart of how company's different job requirements related, developed by Maurice V. Wilkes, Director of the Mathematical Laboratory (Cambridge University); systems-oriented approach to programming devised by David Caminer; less than 100,000th power of modern PC; January 9, 1965 - LEO turned off.

October 7, 1954 - IBM displayed, in Poughkeepsie, NY, a large all-transistor calculator needing only 5% of the power of comparable electronic ones. 1957 - IBM introduced the IBM 608, the fist all-transistor commercial calculator.

1955 - Sperry Corp. acquired Remington Rand, renamed Sperry Rand; December 9, 1960 - introduced UNIVAC 1107, first electronic computer to use thin-film memory; signed valuable cross-licensing deal with IBM; remained major military contractor; 1978 - focused on computer-related business, renamed Sperry Corp.; 1986 - merged with Burroughs Corp., formed Unisys.

October 2, 1955 - ENIAC computer deactivated at 11:45 PM.

1957 -  William Norris, Seymore Cray, six other computer engineers quit UNIVAC division of Sperry Rand Corp. (had sold ERA, pioneering St. Paul computer company founded in 1946, to UNIVAC) , founded Control Data Corp., in Minneapolis, MN, to concentrate on part of market that IBM did not dominate: large computers used mainly in scientific research; 1960 - built he 1604, most powerful computer in world; 1964 - introduced CDC 6600, first commercial supercomputer, 10 times faster than anything on market; 1969 - 45,000 employees, $1 billion in annual revenue; 1976 to 1980 - revenue grew from $2.1 billion to $3.8 billion; 1984 - revenue peaked at $5 billion; 1985 - losses reached more than $400 million, 18,000 workers down from 60,000, plants closed, assets sold; company eventually split into two businesses.

February 6, 1957 - The cryotron, superconductive computer switch developed by Dudley Allen Buck at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, announced; first practical use of superconductivity; hailed as revolutionary component for miniaturizing room-sized computers of 1950s.

August 1957 - Ken Olsen, Stan Olsen, Harlan Anderson left MIT's Lincoln Laboratory, established Digital Equipment Corporation to sell minicomputers to scientific, process control, academic communities; Georges Doriot, founder of American Research and Development Corporation, supplied $70,000 in venture capital (later sold equity stake for about $450 million); pioneered minicomputer industry with PDP series; 1977 - VAX introduced, gained strong foothold in commercial data processing; evolved into complete line from desktop to mainframe, used same VMS operating system in all models; 1992 - introduced RISC-based Alpha architecture open system; 1997 - sold semiconductor manufacturing facilities to Intel; 1998 - acquired by Compaq; 2002 - acquired by Hewlett Packard.

March 27, 1961 - Douglas Aircraft Corporation, Charlotte, NC used first mobile computer center, UNIVAC Solid-State 90 computer loaded into motor van, on assignment; set up by Remington Rand UNIVAC, division of Sperry Rand.

February 4, 1964 - John P. Eckert, Jr. and John W. Mauchly, of Philadelphia, PA, received patent for the "Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer" ("relates to methods and apparatus for performing calculations involving arithmetical calculations, at extremely high speeds, and with minimum use of mechanical elements, as generally so termed , and more particularly relates to the art of electrical computing machines, with particular reference to a machine utilizing electronically produced pulses to rwepresent digits and numbers, and using such pulses for control and programming operations, thus obviating the need for mechanically moving parts for these purposes"); ENIAC; assigned to Sperry Rand Corporation.

April 7, 1964 - IBM launched $5 billion mainframe computer investment, the System/360, a family of six mutually compatible computers and 40 peripherals that could work together; transformed government, science commercial landscape; introduced several industry standards (the de facto worldwide standard of the 8-bit byte); within two years orders for the System/360 reached 1,000 per month.

December 15, 1964 - Kenneth H. Olsen, Bedford, MA, and Richard L. Best, Wayland, MA, received a patent for "Magnetic Core Memory" ("improved reliability in the reading and writing processes in which information is fed into the memory and retrieved from it"); assigned to Digital Equipment Corporation.

1967 - Alan Shugart of IBM created first floppy disk.

1969 - CompuServe founded as computer time-sharing service; September 24, 1979 - began operation as first computer information service (electronic mail capabilities, technical support to personal computer users); 1980 - first online service to offer real-time chat online with CB Simulator; 1982 - formed Network Services Division to provide wide-area networking capabilities to corporate clients; February 1998 - wholly owned subsidiary of America Online, Inc.

October 29, 1969 - First computer-to-computer link  established on ARPANET.

September 13, 1970 - IBM announced System 370 computer.

October 19, 1970 - Dr. Gene Amdahl, former IBM Fellow, director of IBM's Advanced Computing Systems (ACS) Laboratory in Menlo Park, CA, founded Amdahl Corporation in in Sunnyvale, CA; specialized in IBM mainframe-compatible computer products; 1997 - acquired by Fujitsu.

November 17, 1970 - Douglas C. Engelbart, of Palo Alto, CA, received a patent for an "X-Y Position Indicator for a Display System"; assigned to Stanford Research Institute; computer mouse (key element of NLS computer, oN Line System, for two or more users on the same document from different workstations); called a "mouse" because of its tail-like cable; first mouse was simple hollowed-out wooden block with a single push button on top to select, move, manipulate text.

February 1, 1972 - Hewlett-Packard introduced first scientific hand-held calculator (HP-35) for $395; 35 keys, first hand-held calculator able to perform logarithmic, trigonometric functions with one keystroke; February 1975 - production discontinued.

October 19, 1973 -  After two-year anti-trust violation suit in  case of Honeywell vs. Sperry Rand, Federal Judge in Minneapolis, MN, declared ENIAC patent (February 4, 1964) invalid (Mauchly, Eckert did not create basic ideas used in assembly of their computer), belatedly credited physicist John Atanasoff with developing first electronic digital computer, Atanasoff- Berry Computer (ABC). 

December 19, 1974 - The Altair 8800 microcomputer, produced by Ed Roberts, founded Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) to market it, put on sale in U.S., as do-it-yourself computer kit, for $397; used switches for input, flashing lights as display, 8800 microprocessor; demand far exceeded expectations; January 1975 - featured on cover of Popular Electronics; 1977 - Commodore PET introduced, first commercially successful personal computer which integrated  keyboard, monitor in its caseApple II followed later that year.

April 1, 1976 - Steve Jobs (entrepreneur) and Steve Wozniak (engineer) created computer circuit boards in Jobs's parents' Los Altos, CA garage, named the product Apple I, sold it to a local computer store; initial financing: Jobs sold his VW van, Wozniak sold his Hewlett Packard calculator; January 3, 1977 - company incorporated; November 29, 1977 - Apple Computer, Inc. registered "Apple" trademark first used in April 1976 (computers and computer programs recorded on paper and tape); December 12, 1980 - went public.

1976 - Stan Shih, group of university friends founded Multitech in Taipei; became one of pioneers of Taiwan's computer industry; 1986 - adopted Acer brand name; 2007 - 4th largest PC vendor (unit sales) behind Lenovo, HP, Dell; focus on traditional distributors, retailers (vs. internet sales).

March 4, 1977 - First CRAY 1 supercomputer shipped, to Los Alamos Laboratories, New Mexico.

April 16, 1977 - Apple ll introduced at the first West Coast Computer Faire, 4KB model for $970  (Tandy TRS-80 and Commodore PET also introduced in 1977).

February 16, 1978 - Ward Christensen, Randy Seuss created first Computer Bulletin Board System (Ward and Randy's CBBS, Chicago); used S-100 motherboard, CP/M, 300-baud modem.

August 12, 1981 - IBM introduced first Personal Computer (Intel processing chip, operating system developed by thirty-two person company called Microsoft); sold 136,000 units in first year and a half of release; 3 million in first five years; base  price of $1,565; 64 kilobytes of memory, expansion slots for up to 640 Kb more; system with two floppies and a serial port cost $3,045; monitor that displayed letters and numbers in green cost $345; machines ran at a speed of 4.77 megahertz.

May 7, 1982 - IBM released PC-DOS version 1.1.

February 1982 - Rod Canion, Jim Harris, Bill Murto, three senior managers from semiconductor manufacturer Texas Instruments, founded Compaq Computer in Hoston, TX; each invested $1,000; first venture funding from Ben Rosen (Sevin-Rosen partners); March 1983 - released first product, Compaq Portable, portable IBM PC compatible personal computer, priced at $2995; sold 53,000 units in first year; 1985 - released Compaq Deskpro 286, 16-bit desktop computer using an Intel 80286 microprocessor running at 6 MHz, cpable of supporting up to 7 MB of RAM; cost $2000 for 40-MB hard disk model; 1986 - introduced first PC based on Intel's new 80386 microprocessor, Compaq Deskpro 386[2]; icreased performance leadership over IBM; 1997 - acquired Tandem Computers, known for NonStop server line; instantly gave presence in higher end business computing market; 1998 - acquired Digital Equipment Corporation, leading company in previous generation of computing during the 1970s and early 1980s; made Compaq world's second largest computer maker in terms of revenue; May 3, 2002 - acquired by Hewlett-Packard in $19 billion deal.

June 1982 - Columbia Data Products (founded in 1976 in Columbia, MD) introduced the MPC 1600 "Multi Personal Computer", exact functional copy of the IBM PC model 5150 (except for BIOS); first IBM PC clone; 1983 - revenue of $56 million (vs. $9.4 million in 1982); February 1984 - IBM introduced its first portable PC; August 1984 - CDP sales faltered; 1985 - stock dropped to $0.50 per share, delisted; 1986 - taken private; 1987 - shifted emphasis from hardware to software.

July 1982 - Rich Skrenta (15), high school student at Mt. Lebanon High School, Mt. Lebanon, PA, wrote Elk Cloner "boot" virus that infected Apple II machines through floppy disks; considered first virus to hit computers worldwide; relatively harmless prank.

August 18, 1982 - Wang Laboratories filed for Chapter 11 (failure to keep pace with growth in the Personal Computer [PC] market); founded in the 1951, grew profitable as a major supplier of microcomputers. By the 1970s, the company had become a "multi-national colossus." Company was reborn in 1993 (and is known today as Wang Global) and has become a leading systems integrator and provider of information technology services worldwide.

January 19, 1983 - Apple introduced Lisa (Local Integrated Software Architecture); operating system featured multitasking and virtual memory.

March 8, 1983 - IBM released PC DOS version 2.0.

November 10, 1983 - Fred Cohen presented to security seminar results of first documented working virus (defined as "a program that can 'infect' other programs by modifying them to include a ... version of itself"), created as experiment in computer security when studying for PhD at the University of Southern California.

1984 - Liu Chuanzhi, 10 engineers from Chinese Academy of Sciences, received government permission to start business enterprise, worked from small bungalow in Beijing, founded Lenovo; used brand name, Legend; promoted PC usage throughout China, developed the revolutionary Legend Chinese character card that translated English software into Chinese characters; 2003 - name changed to Lenovo; May 2005 - acquired IBM’s PC division for $1,25 billion; became world's third largest PC maker (behind Dell, HP); over $13 billion in annual reserves, more than 19,000 people worldwide.

January 24, 1984 - Apple Computer unveiled Macintosh personal computer; January 30, 1984 - Steve Jobs first publicly demonstrated Macintosh computer.

1985 - Ted Waitt (22) founded Gateway 2000 in Iowa farmhouse; started with $10,000 loan guaranteed by his grandmother, rented computer, three-page business plan; sold computers direct to consumers; 1991 - introduced distinctive cow-spotted boxes (tribute to its farm heritage; 1993 - cracked Fortune 500, went public, traded on NASDAQ; 1997 - moved to New York Stock Exchange; January 2006 - approximately 1,800 employees.

March 19, 1985 - IBM ceased production of its floundering home computer, the PCjr (only sold 240,000 units); November of 1983 - first introduced to fuel IBM's efforts to rule the consumer computer market; touted the computer as a "compact, low-cost" machine for "personal productivity applications, learning and entertainment."

April 8, 1985 - Amdahl released UTS/V, first mainframe Unix.

April 17, 1986 - IBM produced first megabit-chip.

November 11, 1986 - Sperry Rand, Burroughs merged, formed Unisys; nation's second largest computer company.

April 2, 1987 - IBM introduced PS/2 and OS/2 operating systems.

July 24, 1987 - IBM-PC DOS Version 3.3 (updated) released.

August 16, 1988 - IBM introduced software for artificial intelligence.

November 2, 1988 - Cornell University graduate student, Robert T. Morris, unleashed computer "worm" intended as experimental, self-replicating, self-propagating program; "Morris worm", first internet-distributed computer worm to gain significant mainstream media attention,  replicates wildly, clogs thousands of computers around the country (universities, military sites, medical research facilities); message how to kill the worm and prevent reinfection could not be delivered; Morris tried, fined, given probation.

May 13, 1991 - Apple released Macintosh System 7.0.

May 17, 1993 - Intel's new Pentium processor unveiled.

August 6, 1997 - Apple Computer, Microsoft agreed to share technology; Microsoft acquired minority stake in Apple for $150 million.

September 16, 1997 - Apple Computer rehired founder ,  former CEO Steve Jobs to temporarily run company during  search for permanent leader.

September 22, 1997 - IBM announced it had revolutionized computer chips by using copper instead of aluminum in  production of semiconductors.

January 26, 1998 - Compaq Corporation acquired Digital Equipment Corporation for $9.6 billion; largest acquisition in history of the computer industry.

October 23, 1999 - Apple Computer's Mac OS 9 released.

October 23, 2001 - Apple introduced iPod portable music player; 2006 - domestic market share in flash-memory players = 68% (source: NPD Group); iPod sales reached 100 million (Sony Walkman - 14 years); June 19, 2008 - more than 5 billion songs purchased, downloaded from iTunes Store.

December 7, 2004 - IBM agreed to sell PC division to China-based Lenovo Group, took 18.9% stake in Lenovo, in deal valued at $1.75 billion: increased Lenovo's current PC business fourfold: annual sales volume of 11.9 million units, revenue of $12 billion (third largest PC company, behind Dell and HP).

October 12, 2005 - Apple Computer released Video iPod.

2006 - Hewlett Packard passed IBM, became revenue leader in computer industry; largest information company in world.

October 22, 2007 - Apple Computer reported better-than-expected fourth quarter earnings (profit rose 67 percent year over year to $1.01 per share on revenue of $6.22 billion), stock rose to all time high just above $189 per share, market value reached $161 billion = most valuable computer maker, 4th most valuable technology company: Microsoft ($329 billion), Google ($211 billion), Cisco Systems ($195 billion).

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(Brandt Inc.), Charles J. Wallman (1984). Edward J. Brandt, Inventor: His Inventions and His Company, 1890-1983. (Watertown, WI: Brandt, 200 p.). Brandt, Edward J. (Edward Julius), 1859- ; Brandt, Inc.--History; Cash register industry--United States--History; Inventors--United States--Biography.

(Commodore), Michael S. Tomczyk (1984). The Home Computer Wars: An Insider's Account of Commodore and Jack Tramiel. (Greensboro, NC: Compute! Publications, 301 p.). Tramiel, Jack; Commodore computers.

(Control Data), James C. Worthy (1987). William C. Norris: Portrait of a Maverick. (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Pub. Co., 259 p.). Norris, William C., 1911-; Control Data Corporation--History; Computer industry--United States--History; Businesspeople--United States--Biography.

(Control Data), Robert Price (2005). The Eye for Innovation: Recognizing Possibilities and Managing the Creative Enterprise. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 352 p.). Former CEO (Control Data). Control Data Corporation--History; Technological innovations--Management; Information technology; Creative ability in business. Technology plus innovation improves society. 

(Cray Research), Charles J. Murray (1997). The Supermen: The Story of Seymour Cray and the Technical Wizards Behind the Supercomputer. (New York, NY: Wiley, 232 p.). Cray, Seymour; Computer engineers--United States--Biography; Cray computers--Design and construction--History.

(Data General), Tracy Kidder (1981). The Soul of a New Machine. (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 293 p.). Data General Corporation; Computer engineering--Popular works.

(Dell), Michael Dell with Catherine Fredman (1999). Direct from Dell: Strategies that Revolutionized an Industry (New York, NY: HarperBusiness, 236 p.). Dell Computers, Computer Industry.

(Dell), Steven Holzner (2005). How Dell Does It: Using Speed and Innovation To Achieve Extraordinary Results. (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 234 p.). Contributing Editor at PC Magazine. Dell Computers, Computer Industry. Processes, practices, culture - how they function within Dell’s business model. 

(Digital Equipment), David A. Buchanan and James McCalman (1989). High Performance Work Systems: The Digital Experience . (New York, NY: Routledge, 227 p.). Digital Equipment Corporation --Management; Computer industry --Great Britain --Management --Case studies.

(Digital Equipment), Glenn Rifkin and George Harrar (1990). The Ultimate Entrepreneur: The Story of Ken Olsen and Digital Equipment Corporation (Rocklin, CA: Prima Pub., 336 p.).

(Digital Equipment), Edited by Jamie Parker Pearson (1992). Digital at Work: Snapshots from the First Thirty-Five Years. (Burlington, MA: Digital Press, 212 p.). Digital Equipment Corporation -- History; Computer industry -- United States -- History.

(Digital Equipment), Edgar H. Schein ... [et al.] (2003). DEC Is Dead, Long Live DEC: The Lasting Legacy of Digital Equipment Corporation. (San Francisco, CA: Barrett-Koehler, 319 p.). Professor of Organizational Psychology and Management (MIT). Digital Equipment Corporation--History; Digital Equipment Corporation--Biography; Computer industry--United States--History; Computer industry--United States--Management--Case studies. 

(Digital Equipment), Alan R. Earls (2004). Digital Equipment Corporation. (Portsmouth, NH: Arcadia, 128 p.). Digital Equipment Corporation--History; Computer industry--United States--History. Pioneer in computer technology; market valuation of more than $12 billion, employed approximately 120,000 people worldwide (second only to IBM). 

(ENIAC), Nancy Stern (1981). From ENIAC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly computers. (Bedford, MA: Digital Press, 286 p.). Electronic digital computers--History; Computer industry--United States--History; ENIAC (Computer).

(ENIAC), Scott McCartney (1999). ENIAC: The Triumphs and Tragedies of the World's First Computer. (New York, NY: Walker, 262 p.). Journalist (Wall Street Journal). Electronic digital computers -- History; Computer industry -- United States -- History.

(Hewlett-Packard), David Packard ; edited by David Kirby with Karen Lewis (1995). The HP Way: How Bill Hewlett and I Built Our Company. (New York, NY: HarperBusiness, 212 p.). Co-Founder of Hewlett-Packard. Packard, David, 1912- ; Hewlett, William R.; Hewlett-Packard Company--History; Microelectronics industry--United States--History; Computer industry--United States--History; Electronics engineers--United States--Biography; Businessmen--United States--Biography.

(Hewlett-Packard), Barbara Waugh with Margot Silk Forrest (2001). The Soul in the Computer: The Story of a Corporate Revolutionary. (Maui, HI: Inner Ocean, 249 p.). Waugh, Barbara; Hewlett-Packard Company; Social responsibility of business; Corporate culture; Social action; Political activists.

(Hewlett-Packard), George Anders (2003). Perfect Enough: Carly Fiorina and the Reinvention of Hewlett-Packard. (New York, NY: Portfolio, 288 p.). Former Reporter (Wall Street Journal). Fiorina, Carly; Packard, David, 1912- ;Hewlett, William R.; Hewlett-Packard Company--Management; Hewlett-Packard Company--History; Electronic industries--United States--Management--Case studies; Computer industry--United States--Management--Case studies; Organizational change--United States--Case studies; Women executives--United States--Biography; Businesspeople--United States--Biography.

(Hewlett-Packard), Peter Burrows (2003). Backfire: Carly Fiorina's High-Stakes Battle for the Soul of Hewlett-Packard. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 296 p.). Fiorina, Carly; Hewlett, William R.; Hewlett-Packard Company; Compaq Computer Corporation; Electronic industries--United States; Computer industry--United States; Consolidation and merger of corporations--United States--Case studies; Corporations--Investor relations--United States--Case studies.

(Hewlett-Packard), Carly Fiorina (2006). Tough Choices: A Memoir. (New York, NY: Portfolio, 336 p.). Former President and CEO of Hewlett-Packard from 1999 to 2005. Fiorina, Carly; Women executives--United States--Biography. Led HP for six years through drastic changes, controversial merger;  sudden, very public firing by board. Was it about performance?

(IBM), Charles Ranlett Flint (1923). Memories of an Active Life; Men, and Ships, and Sealing Wax. (New York, NY: Putnam, 349 p.). Flint, Charles Ranlett; Consolidation and merger of corporations--United States--Case studies

(IBM), Thomas J. Watson (1954). "As a Man Thinks ...": Thomas J. Watson, the Man and His Philosophy of Life as Expressed in His Editorials. (New York, NY: IBM Corporation, 183 p.). Founder of IBM. Watson, Thomas John, 1874-1956; philosophy -- business.

(IBM), Thomas Graham Belden and Marva Robins Belden (1962). The Lengthening Shadow: The Life of Thomas J. Watson (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 332 p.). Watson, Thomas John, 1874-1956; International Business Machines Corporation--History; Businessmen--United States--Biography.

(IBM), Thomas J. Watson (1963). A Business and Its Beliefs; The Ideas That Helped Build IBM (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 107 p.). International Business Machines Corporation.

(IBM), William Rodgers (1969). Think; A Biography of the Watsons and IBM. (New York, NY: Stein and Day, 320 p.). Watson, Thomas John, 1874-1956; Watson, Thomas J., 1914- ; International Business Machines Corporation.

(IBM), Nancy Foy (1975). The Sun Never Sets on IBM. (New York, NY: Morrow, 218 p.). International Business Machines Corporation; Computer industry.

(IBM), Rex Malik (1975). And Tomorrow ... the World?: Inside IBM. (London, UK: Millington,, 496 p.). International Business Machines Corporation.

(IBM), Clair F. Vough with Bernard Asbell (1975). Tapping the Human Resource: A Strategy for Productivity. (New York, NY: AMACOM, 212 p.). International Business Machines Corporation. Office Products Division; Wages and labor productivity -- Case studies.

(IBM), Saul Engelbourg (1976). International Business Machine : A Business History (New York, NY: Arno Press, 385 p. [Originally presented as author's thesis, Columbia, 1954]). International Business Machines Corporation.

(IBM), Katharine Davis Fishman (1981). The Computer Establishment. (New York, NY: Harper & Row, 468 p.). International Business Machines Corporation--History; Computer industry--United States--History.

(IBM), Robert Sobel (1981). IBM: Colossus in Transition (New York, NY: Times Books, 360 p.). International Business Machines-History

(IBM), Franklin M. Fisher, John J. McGowan, and Joen E. Greenwood (1983). Folded, Spindled, and Mutilated: Economic Analysis and U.S. v. IBM. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 443 p.). International Business Machines Corporation--Trials, litigation, etc.; Antitrust law--United States; Computer industry--Law and legislation--United States; Antitrust law--Economic aspects--United States; computer industry--Law and legislation--Economic aspects--United States; United States; United States--Trials, litigation, etc.

(IBM), Franklin M. Fisher, James W. McKie, Richard B. Mancke (1983). IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry: An Economic History. (New York, NY: Praeger, 532 p.). International Business Machines Corporation--History; Computer industry--United States--History.

(IBM), Richard T. DeLemarter (1986). Big Blue: IBM's Use and Abuse of Power. (New York, NY: Dodd, Mead, 393 p.). IBM, Computer Industry, Monopolies.

(IBM), F.G. "Buck" Rodgers, with Robert L. Shook (1986). The IBM Way: Insights into the World's Most Successful Marketing Organization. (New York,. NY: Harper & Row, 235 p.). International Business Machines Corporation; Computers--Marketing--Case studies; Electronic office machines--Marketing--Case studies; Marketing--Case studies.

(IBM), Robert Sobel (1986). IBM vs. Japan: The Struggle for the Future (New York, NY: Stein & Day, 262 p.). International Business Machines Corporation; Computer industry; Computer industry--United States; Computer industry--Japan.

(IBM), Watts S. Humphrey (1987). Managing for Innovation: Leading Technical People. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 206 p.). International Business Machines Corporation -- Management; High technology industries -- Management; Organizational change; Professional employees.

(IBM), James Chposky and Ted Leonsis (1988). Blue Magic: The People, Power, and Politics Behind the IBM Personal Computer. (New York, NY: Facts on File, 228 p.). International Business Machines Corporation--History; IBM microcomputers--History; IBM Personal Computer--History.

(IBM), Michael Killen (1988). IBM, The Making of the Common View. (Boston, MA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 284 p.). International Business Machines Corporation; Computer industry.

(IBM), David Mercer (1988). The Global IBM: Leadership in Multinational Management . (New York, NY: Dodd, Mead, 374 p.). International Business Machines Corporation -- Management; International business enterprises -- Management -- Case studies.

(IBM, D. Quinn Mills (1988). The IBM Lesson: The Profitable Art of Full Employment. (New York, NY: Times Books, 216 p.). International Business Machines Corporation -- Management; International Business Machines Corporation -- Employees; Computer industry -- United States -- Employees.

(IBM), William W. Simmons with Richard B. Elsberry (1988). Inside IBM: The Watson Years: A Personal Memoir. (Bryn Mawr, PA: Dorrance, 202 p.). Watson, Thomas John, 1874-1956; Watson, Thomas J., 1914- ; Watson, Arthur Kittredge, 1919-1974; International Business Machines Corporation--History; Computer industry--United States--History; Businesspeople--United States--Biography.

(IBM), Jacques Maisonrouge; translation by Nina Rootes. (1989). Inside IBM: A Personal Story. (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 316 p.). Maisonrouge, Jacques, 1924- ; International Business Machines Corporation--Management; International business enterprises--Management; Executives--France--Biography.

(IBM), Regis McKenna (1989). Who's Afraid of Big Blue?: How Companies Are Challenging IBM-- and Winning. (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 218 p.). International Business Machines Corporation; Computer industry--United States; Competition--United States.

(IBM), Ed Aswad, Suzanne M. Meredith (2005). IBM in Endicott. (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Pub., 128 p.). International Business Machines Corporation--History; International Business Machines Corporation--Pictorial works; Computer industry--United States--History; Electronic office machine industry--United States--History; Company towns--New York (State)--Endicott--History. Bundy Manufacturing Company relocated to Endicott, NY, part of greatest industrial revolution in world: development of corporation, people, ideas that made IBM a household word.

(ICL), Martin Campbell-Kelly (1989). ICL: A Business and Technical History. (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 409 p.). ICL Limited--History; Computer industry--Great Britain--History.

(LEO), David Caminer, John Aris, Peter Hermon, Frank Land (1998). LEO: The Incredible Story of the World’s First Business Computer. (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 392 p.). Devised Systems-Oriented Approach to Programming. Leo computer; Business --Data processing --History; Computers --Great Britain --History. November 17, 1951 - J. Lyons & Company, chain of British tea shops, introduced world's first computer for business purposes; first business machine in world to operate on 'stored program principle'.

(Lenovo), Zhijun Ling, Martha Avery (Translator (2006). The Lenovo Affair: The Growth of China's Computer Giant and Its Takeover of IBM-PC. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 250 p.). Reporter for the People’s Daily (Shanghai). Lenovo, Computer industry -- China. Rise of company in changing business environment in China. History of Lenovo (Lianxiang in China) and founder Liu Chuanzhi. Contended with two powerful forces: market and government. 

(Linux), Linus Torvalds and David Diamond (2001). Just for Fun: The Story of an Accidental Revolutionary. (New York, NY: HarperBusiness, 262 p.). Torvalds, Linus, 1969- ; Linux; Computer programmers--Finland--Biography.

(MIPS), Michael S. Malone (1991). Going Public: MIPS Computer and the Entrepreneurial Dream. (New York, NY: E. Burlingame Books, 291 p.). Going public (Securities)--Case studies; Entrepreneurship--Case studies; Computer industry--Case studies.

(NCR), Samuel Crowther (1923). John H. Patterson, Pioneer in Industrial Welfare. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page, 364 p.). Patterson, John Henry, 1844-1922; National Cash Register Company.

(NCR), Roy Wilder Johnson (1932). The Sales Strategy of John H. Patterson, Founder of the National Cash Register Company. (Chicago, IL: The Dartnell Group, 344 p.). Patterson, John Henry, 1844-1922; National Cash Register Company; Salesmen and salesmanship.

(NCR), George Francis Taubeneck (1937). They Didnt' Know They Wanted It; How John H. Patterson Developed the Specialty Selling Formula. (Detroit, MI: Business News Publishing Co., 222 p.). Patterson, John Henry, 1844-1922; National Cash Register Company, Dayton, O.; Salesmen and salesmanship.

(NCR), Issac F. Marcosson (1945). Wherever Men Trade; The Romance of the Cash Register. (New York, NY: Dodd, Mead, 263 p.). Patterson, John Henry, 1844-1922; National Cash Register Company; Cash registers.

(NCR), Stanley C. Allyn (1968). My Half Century with NCR. (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 209 p.). National Cash Register Company.

(NeXT Computer), Randall E. Stross (1993). Steve Jobs and the NeXT Big Thing. (New York, NY: Atheneum, 374 p.). Jobs, Steven, 1955- ; NeXT Computer, Inc.; NeXT (Computer).

(Osborne Computer Corporation), Adam Osborne and John Dvorak (1984). Hypergrowth: The Rise and Fall of Osborne Computer Corporation. (Berkeley, CA: Idthekkethan Pub. Co., 204 p.). Osborne Computer Corporation; Computer industry--United States; Microcomputers.

(SAP), Hasso Plattner in conversation with August-Wilhelm Scheer, Siegfried Wendt, and Daniel S. Morrow; translated from the German by William McKone (2000). Anticipating Change: Secrets Behind the SAP Empire. (Roseville, CA: Prima Tech, 275 p.). SAP AG; Computer software industry--Germany.

(Sperry Rand), Thomas Parke Hughes (1971). Elmer Sperry; Inventor and Engineer. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 348 p.). Sperry, Elmer Ambrose, 1860-1930.

(Sperry Rand), David E. Lundstrom (1987). A Few Good Men from Univac. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 227 p.). Univac computer--History; Computer industry--History.

(Sperry Rand), Thomas A. Russo (2002). Mechanical Typewriters: Their History, Value, and Legacy. (Atglen, PA: Schiffer Pub. Ltd., 256 p.). E. Remington & Sons--History; Remington Rand, Inc.--History; Typewriters--History; Typewriters--Collectors and collecting.

(Victor Comptometer), Edwin Darby (1968). It All Adds Up; The Growth of Victor Comptometer Corporation. (Chicago, IL: Victor Comptometer Corporation, 243 p.). Victor Comptometer Corporation.

(Wang), An Wang with Eugene Linden (1986). Lessons: An Autobiography. (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 248 p.). Wang, An, 1920- ; Wang Laboratories, Inc.--History; Computer industry--United States--History; Industrialists--United States--Biography.

(Wang), Charles C. Kenney (1992). Riding the Runaway Horse: The Rise and Decline of Wang Laboratories. (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 323 p.). Wang, An, 1920- ; Wang Laboratories, Inc.--History; Computer industry--United States--History; Electronic industries--United States--History.

(Wyly Corporation), Ben Voth (1974). A Piece of the Computer Pie. (Houston, TX: Gulf Pub. Co., 182 p.). Wyly Corporation; Computer industry--United States.

(Xerox), Ed. Giuliana Lavendel (1980). A Decade of Research: Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, 1970-1980. (New York, NY: R.R. Bowker & Co. Xerox Corporation. Palo Alto Research Center--History.

(Xerox), Ed. Giuliana Lavendel (1990). PARC, The Second Decade, 1980-1990. (Palo Alto, CA: Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, 810 p.). Xerox Corporation. Palo Alto Research Center--History.

(Xerox), Michael Hiltzik (1999). Dealers of Lightning: Xerox PARC and the Dawn of the Computer Age. (New York, NY: HarperBusiness, 448 p.). Correspondent (Los Angeles Times). Xerox Corporation. Palo Alto Research Center--History; Computer science--Research--California--Palo Alto--History.

Jon Agar (2003). The Government Machine: A Revolutionary History of the Computer. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 554 p). Computers--Government policy--Great Britain--History; Public administration--Great Britain--Data processing--History; Civil service--Effect of technological innovations on--Great Britain--History. Mechanization of government work in United Kingdom from 19th-early 21st century; tied to rise of "expert movements" (deployment of machines was attempt to gain control over state action).

Geoffrey D. Austrian (1982). Herman Hollerith, Forgotten Giant of Information Processing. (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 418 p.). Hollerith, Herman, 1860-1929; Electronic data processing--Biography.

Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray (1996). Computer: A History of the Information Machine. (New York, NY: Basic Books, 342 p.). Teacher of Computer Science (Warwick University), Exec. Dir., Computing Research Association. Computers--History; Electronic data processing--History.

Martin Campbell-Kelly (2003). A History of the Software Industry: From Airline Reservations to Sonic the Hedgehog. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, p.). Teacher of Computer Science (Warwick University). Computer software industry--History.

I. Bernard Cohen (1999). Howard Aiken: Portrait of a Computer Pioneer. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 329 p.). Howard H. Aiken (1900-1973), Computers, Computer Engineers. 

Compiled by James W. Cortada (1990). A Bibliographic Guide to the History of Computing, Computers, and the Information Processing Industry. (New York, NY: Greenwood Press, 644 p.). Computers--History--Bibliography; Electronic data processing--History--Bibliography.

--- (1996). Second Bibliographic Guide to the History of Computing, Computers, and the Information Processing Industry. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 416 p.). Computers--History; Electronic data processing--History.

James W. Cortada (1993). Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the Industry They Created, 1865-1956. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 344 p.). Office equipment and supplies industry--United States--History; Electronic office machine industry--United States--History.

--- (1993). The Computer in the United States: From Laboratory to Market, 1930 to 1960. (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 183 p.). Computer engineering--United States--History; Computers--United States--History; Computer industry--United States--History.

--- (2004). The Digital Hand: How Computers Changed the Work of American Manufacturing, Transportation, and Retail Industries. (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 494 p.). Automation--Economic aspects--United States; Manufacturing industries--United States--Automation; Transportation--United States--Automation; Retail trade--United States--Automation.  

Charles H. Ferguson (1999). High St@kes, No Prisoners: A Winner's Tale of Greed and Glory in the Internet Wars. (New York, NY: Times Business, 392 p.). Computer industry--California--Santa Clara County; High technology industries--California--Santa Clara County; Entrepreneurship--United States--Case studies; Wealth--California--Santa Clara County.

Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine (2000). Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 463 p. [2nd. ed]). Microcomputers--United States-History.

Dennis Hayes (1989). Behind the Silicon Curtain: The Seductions of Work in a Lonely Era. (Boston, MA: South End Press, 215 p.). Computer industry--California--Santa Clara Valley (Santa Clara County).

John Hendry (1989). Innovating for Failure: Government Policy and the Early British Computer Industry. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 240 p.). Computer industry--Government policy--Great Britain--History.

Andrew Hodges (1983). Alan Turing: The Enigma. (New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, 587 p.). Turing, Alan Mathison, 1912-1954; Mathematicians--Great Britain--Biography.

Rama D. Jager, Rafael Ortiz (1997). In the Company of Giants: Candid Conversations with the Visionaries of the Digital World (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 232 p.). Computer industry--United States--Management--Case studies; Computer software industry--United States--Management--Case studies; Entrepreneurship--United States--Case studies; Success in business--United States--Case studies; Chief executive officers--United States--Interviews.

David Leavitt (2005). The Man Who Knew Too Much: Alan Turing and the Invention of the Computer. (New York, NY: Norton, 288 p.). Teaches Creative Writing (University of Florida, Gainesville). Turing, Alan Mathison, 1912-1954; Mathematicians--Great Britain--Biography; Gay men--Legal status, laws, etc.--Great Britain; Artificial intelligence--History. Originator of the ideas that led to the invention of the computer.

Steven Levy (2001). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. (New York, NY: Penguin, 455 p. [orig. pub. 1994]). Computer programming; Computer hackers.

John Markoff (2005). What the Dormouse Said--: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry. (New York, NY: Viking, 310 p.). Technology Reporter (New York Times). Microcomputers--History; Computers and civilization; Nineteen sixties. 

David A. Mindell (2002). Between Human and Machine: Feedback, Control, and Computing before Cybernetics. (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 439 p.). Frances and David Dibner Associate Professor of the History of Engineer